Different theories of retirement and ageing

Different theories of solitude and get oningWhen discussing the subject of l whizzliness, the prime(prenominal) resign that wizard comes across is that of defining what privacy is, and when it occurs. agree to Denton and Spencer (2009), the Oxford prospect Dictionary defines privacy as follows To withdraw from office, or an official position to give up unitys business or occupation in secern to enjoy more leisure or freedom (e peculiar(a)ly after having make a competence or earned a pension). They continue to summate that seclusion locoweed be voluntary or involuntary in pocketable stages or sudden temporary or permanent. Hence, there is no ace clear definition which embodies totally the possible situations.In contrast, Banks and Smith (2006), rea tidings that l hotshotliness is made up of the following characteristics it is a sudden, rather than a gradual process, it is a permanent and voluntary choice, it equals to drawing a pension, and it is a decision made by the individual rather than cooperatively with dwelling house members. This is the c formerlypt of solitude that is adopted by most economists. In addition, seclusion is a state of matter of mind in the sense that the individual recognizes him/herself as be retired. The definition is and so a subjective one which may mean contrary things to different wad and populations. In itself, it is a extensive word which encompasses a number of different elements.For umpteen workers, solitude is seen as an opportunity of long awaited freedom from the responsibilities and stress of vocation. It brings change and mark a transition into the later purport stages. It is a quantify of deflection and travel, and an opportunity to develop new psychic and physical routines. Planning and anticipating retirement play an requisite part in the lives of m any workers and their families. Recently, the new phenomenon of azoic retirement has become progressively more popular (Rosenko etter Garris, 2001).Shaw and Hill (2002) tell that a uncouthly used definition for retirement is an age-related withdrawal from ready working life. However, one has to define what constitutes an active working life. Some researchers affirm chosen to allow their respondents to classify themselves as to whether they argon retired or not. This approach, however, has the outrage that the definition of retirement ordain not be the same for e genuinelyone as some concourse who are working and receiving a previous pipeline pension may consider themselves retired whilst others who contain stopped working and are taking care of grandchildren, for instance, do not consider themselves as retired. Hence, different definitions of retirement result in different retirement patterns for men and women. The authors go on to argue that as there is no single dress hat definition for retirement, the definition should be adapted according the question being asked, therefore multiple definition s would be helpful when dealing with specific differences in men and womens decisions to leave the remunerative work force.Origins and History of lonelinessIn their respective works, Graebner (1980) and Costa (2000) provide a brief history on the evolution of retirement. Back in the 1850s, 77% of men who were over 65 years were still working. Not working was viewed as inappropriate and hence people worked as long as they could. In pre-industrial America, most worked in agriculture, and in this area there was no retirement. When a man became excessively nonagenarian to do strenuous work such as ploughing, his son would usually take over whilst he shifts to less demanding chores. Before the civilian War, the elderly were viewed as valued people, for a number of reasons such as their knowledge, hard-work, moral guidance they offered and the contri thoion in reforming the country. As they grew previous(a), they were still respected and played important roles in the community and families. After the Civil War, though, this began to change. The race shifted from being primarily rural to an increasingly urban society alter by industrialization. Unlike agricultural workers, urban workers did not fox the familial support to enable them to shift to less strenuous work as they aged. By the 1880s, the American economy relied on manufacturing, and relationships mingled with young and obsolescent workers started to become troublesome. The intellection of retirement started to develop as a mean to deal with these encroachs.As industrialization grew in the United States, business and administration leaders realized that they need to develop a mechanism which would didder economic growth whilst assisting in the replacement of less efficient honest-to-god workers with cheaper, younger ones. The preferred mechanism for this was the mandatory retirement of older workers. With the interpolation of machines, one began to realize that older workers were neither f ast nor strong complete to operate machinery and this slowed d give birth production. By getting older workers out of the way, the men would be re displace with a younger, faster, and more efficient one. Attitudes toward elderly people became increasingly negative. By the early 1900s factory owners restricted the hiring of older people and beef up retirement policies which were mandatory in order to get rid of the ones already employed. Since many business owners were un well-heeled with the idea of getting rid of stanch older workers leaving them without any transaction and income whatsoever, some of them offered pensions or helped to pass water company homes for the elderly. By the year 1920, mandatory retirement with a small pension became the preferred method for moving older workers aside. Hence, employers eliminated older workers but in the mean time felt secure that the retired worker would have ample money to survive. Without any doubt, some older workers resisted thi s be after. Social operate were almost inexistent and retirement meant a lower standard of sprightliness. Yet, when confronted with so many retirement rules, workers found themselves forced out of their jobs so much so that by the year 1920, almost half of all white manlike workers over the age of 60 were no longer in the workforce. Still, older workers discovered that retiring and receiving some sort of, counterbalance if an insufficient, pension was reveal than being pushed aside without nothing at all.The first federal retirement legislation became known as The Railroad seclusion Act of 1935, and was a testing ground for later development. The easiest way out of chronic unemployment in the country became the retirement of all older persons the only problem was making sure that pensions are available.Things changed once again during World War II when anyone who could went back to work. This vagabond back the country into full employment once again. However, after the war, retirement was once again the mechanism which controlled costs and employment rates. Even though pensions became increasingly common, many retired workers tolerateed unhappy about the idea of retirement so much so that an alarming number even refused to apply for social bene ables. Hence, business and governments started to instil ideas to older workers with the idyllic thoughts of leisure, and the well-earned reciprocate of free time at their age. This is when insurance companies started to make large earnings out of life insurance policies and when sociologists formed the theories of maturement. By the late 1960s, the mythology of retirement was completely assimilated into Americans minds.In the mid-1980s, mandates changed pension rules so that widows were not left without any benefits. Also, social security benefits were increase and as a result, the percent of pensioners living in poverty significantly dropped. By the 1970s and 1980s, pensions were fixed to a retirement for mula which depended on the length of service and final net income of the person. This meant that a worker would not know what pension he would throw until he actually retired. To avoid all this, business shifted from traditional delimit pension plans to defined contribution plans where they promised that a contribution of a authoritative amount would be do towards each workers pension.Benefits and Drawbacks of RetirementAccording to Coni, Davison, and Webster (1992), during retirement income is likely to be reduced, however occupational pensions which are meet more common offer greater monetary security. Those who have become as well dependent on trappings of their employment may realize that their spot has changed and that they miss the company of the work-place. On the other hand, retirement should be looked upon as a time of opportunity, which after all, may last for more than 30 years. If the approach towards retirement is a happy and an enthusiastic one, then it is very likely that it will live up to expectations. When it comes to learning new material, older learners usually do better due to higher motivation levels, and change magnitude self-knowledge. The authors go on to argue that everybody has to find their own way finished old age and retirement, and if one, at his or her age, feel happy and comfortable doing something, then that thing is right for him or her. When it comes to relationships, retirement may be the only time that one can truly live unneurotic with their partner since they are no longer kept apart by employment and family, even though difficulties may arise in this moot as well. Regarding fitness, one should keep in mind that the fitter one is, the less likely it is to become ill and the more likely one would make a full and swift recovery. Since the elderly are touch with degenerative changes, attention should be paid to both(prenominal) physical and mental fitness. Muscles waste in a sedentary lifestyle but they have th e ability to redevelop and this can be achieved by doing an occupation which one enjoys and gives them pleasure. These complicate walking the dog, ballroom dancing, and even cultivating a garden. Mental activities should be taken up to develop and maintain the mind by learning, re-learning, or improving a foreign language. Prevention of illness is a lifelong need, and good habits must be started early and maintained passim. A common reason for eagerly anticipating retirement may be the wish to be freed from a strict routine inflicted by employment, which is understandable, but also inappropriate. Retirement should provide the opportunity of restructuring ones routine. This can be done by establishing enough time for physical activity, some time for learning, time for family and time for ones self. Having utter all this, during retirement, one may be faced by painful tasks, decisions, and situations. Therefore, fore-thinking potential problems such as loneliness, bereavement, s eemly a carer, or becoming disabled, will always help to deal with such dilemmas.Windmill (1992), states that retirement can mean a discharge of status, a sense of no longer being a useful society member, losing ones sense of purpose, and becoming part of the receiving end of society. However, one should understand the importance of preparing for retirement so that mental, physical, and social changes do not come by as a shock. Retirement means mean finances, doing leisure activities, and considering wellness and housing ineluctably.Eliopoulos (1993) adds that retirement may be the first experience of the impact of ageing for many. It is facilitated by learning how to use, appreciate and gain satisfaction from leisure time, which is also a therapeutic outlet for life stresses. The author also mentions the stages of retirement certain by Robert Atchley in 1975, which, however, not all retirees go through the hostile contour where retirement is anticipated but preparation is sel dom done the near phase when preparation for leaving the job begins the honeymoon phase which is the euphoric period that follows retirement the disenchantment phase where depression may be experienced the reorientation phase where realistic choices are considered the stability phase when an understanding of a retirement roles is achieved and the termination phase when retirement role is lost due to illness or disability.Studies suggest this life event may be a stressful even for those experiencing health or monetary issues at the time of retirement however, those who manage to plan out their retirement are less likely to experience monetary burdens. For some, retirement may mean loss of income and identity, loss of status authority, loss of purpose in life and loss of peer contacts (Miller, 1995).Retirement in MaltaLocally, workers nearing the retirement age may be eligible for a retirement pension. A person would be eligible to a Contributory Retirement Pension if he or she sa tisfies a number of conditions the person has reached the retirement age, 61 for males, and 60 for females, the worker has been employed or self-employed for not less than 10 year prior to retirement the worker has paid at least 156 contributions and that on the day of retirement, the worker has satisfied the pertinent contribution conditions (Ministry of Education, Employment and the Family, 2011).The General Workers Union (2009) offers a course empower Preparazzjoni ghall-Irtirar (Preparation for Retirement) and also houses a Pensioners Association whose major task is to attend to special and particular needs of pensioners and retired workers. It protects rights and interests, and safeguards pension levels and standard of living. Cultural, social, and educational activities are held yearly and membership is open to all retired workers.Planning for RetirementAccording to Coni et al., (1992), we should all be preparedness our own retirement throughout our lives, and that even sc hool-aged children should cop some form of instruction about the topic. This would enable younger people to have a better understanding of what ageing is and learn about some complexities of being old. Having hobbies and leisure pursuits at a young age may introduce them to activities that they enjoy. Hence, once retired, one would be able to reelect to these activities.Financial planning must also start early because in order for one to have a secure retirement capital, an decorous income must firstly be assured. Unfortunately, attention also needs to be paid towards the possibility of widowhood (especially in women), and that remarriage may be an additional complication.Rosenkoetter Garris (2001), state that in a dissect carried out in 1989, retirement planning was the second strongest predictor of satisfaction amongst male respondents, and in another study in 1997 it was found that retirement planning correlated with positive attitudes towards retirement. By participating in pre-retirement programs or courses, one can start assessing his or her attitudes and preparedness towards retiring. These courses would be most successful if they manage to address financial and health matters. Since retirement may prove a new importee and value to ones life, pre-retirement counseling assists individuals in their preparation. In an Australian study, it was noted that retirement may be a stressful and challenging event and that planning was directly correlated with successful adaptation.The authors conclude that post-retirement perceptions of planning most of the time may not correspond with pre-retirement preparation. In their study, more emphasis was placed of financial planning and psychosocial adjustment to their life after employment. There was a significant increase in sedentary activities with may correlate with an increased risk of health problems found in this age group, hence retirees should be encouraged not only in social interactions, but in physical ac tivity too. Differences were found in planning according to the persons employment position, which relates to the need of developing post-retirement planning programs which are individualized to the type of worker.In their study, Phua and McNall (2008) concluded that as men age, concern about securing their finances increases and that this issue remains at top priority among people approaching retirement. The authors understand that studies show that retirees eventually adjust their spending patterns according to the drivings of their financial situation. Expectations towards marriage and having children is another issues that affects pre-retirement planning and this includes a need to resolve the conflict between saving and increased demands on financial resources that a family can require.According to Elder and Rudolph (1999), retirement satisfaction is based on both financial and non-financial variables. Results from their study indicated that attending preretirement courses an d planning meetings were positively related to retirement satisfaction. Also, planning out activities correlated with an increased likelihood of retirement satisfaction.Theories of senescenceThroughout the years, scientists have been trying to develop theories of ageing in an campaign to answer questions such as Why do we age? and How do we age?. Early sociologic theories, in the 1960s, focused on adjustments of older people towards loss of roles and reference groups. Theories which are based on these themes include the disengagement, activity, and persistence theories.In 1961, Cumming and Henry published their first sociologic theory of ageing the disengagement theory. According to this theory, a process of mutual disengagement takes place during aging where both the individual and the society in which he or she travel withdraw from each other (Redfern, 1996). This process is an inevitable one, and is governed by societys needs which dominate individual needs. This theory furth er states that older people longing this withdrawal, and as the social contacts of a person diminish, disengagement becomes a street arab process that further limits opportunities of interaction (Miller, 1995).Another theory of ageing is the activity theory which is based on the belief that in order for one to age successfully, he or she must keep active. It was first say by Havighurst and Albrecht in 1953 who said that social role participation is essential for positive adjustment to old age. In 1963, Havighurst and colleagues created the term activity theory. In 1972, then, it was Lemon and colleagues who formalized the theory which proposed that older people could only remain psychologically and socially fit if they remained active and that loss of roles in old age affect life satisfaction negatively. Above all, the quality of interaction is more important than the quantity of activity (Miller, 1995).The continuity (or developmental) theory was put forward by Neugarten in 1968 because none of the other theories successfully explained ageing. According to this theory, a persons coping strategies are in place long ahead he or she starts to age, however personality features are continuously dynamic and evolving. Therefore the best way to predict how a person will adjust to ageing is by examining how that same person has adjusted to situations throughout his or her life. This theory hence brings out the importance of the relationship between personality and successful ageing (Miller, 1995).Some other proposed theories of ageing include the subculture theory proposed by Rose (1962, 1965), which states that old people have their own norms, beliefs, habits, and expectations and hence have their own subculture, the age stratification theory by Riley in 1972, which explains the interdependencies between age as an element of social body structure and ageing and cohorts as a social process. Other theories include the person-environment fit theory and the human nee ds theory (Miller, 1995).